Art has always been a love of mine. I invite you to view the history of the Church through the eyes of artists and architects both past and present.

Father John's Art Notes

These notes are taken from Fr. John Dolan's M.A. Thesis (Saint Patrick's Seminary, Menlo Park, CA, September, 1989).

1/25/04: Church Approach to Art & Architecture
2/1/04: Early Christian Period: Catacombs and House Churches
2/8/04: Byzantine Period
2/15/04: Romanesque Period
2/22/04: Gothic Period
2/29/04: Renaissance Period
3/05/04: Baroque to Gothic Revival Period

Introduction
The Church's Approach to Art/Architecture

The Church has not adopted any particular style of art as her own. She has admitted styles from every period, in keeping with the natural characteristics and conditions of peoples and the needs of the various rites. Thus in the course of the centuries she has brought into existence a treasury of art which must be preserved with every care. The art of our own times from every race and country shall also be given free scope in the Church, provided it bring to the task the reverence and honor due to the sacred buildings and rites. Thus it is enabled to join its voice to that wonderful chorus of praise in honor of the Catholic faith sung by great men and women in past ages. Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, no. 123.

An historical survey of the arts allows one to appreciate the styles, not only of different periods but also of different cultures. The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy,quoted above, reflects this fact: that art and architecture are both expressions of time and space. Both art and architecture must, by their very nature, bring out the values, beliefs, and attitudes of a particular period and community. Certainly too the values, beliefs, and attitudes of the artist are expressed in his/ her own work. Thus art and architecture reflect the particulars of a time and culture and of an individual artist. They may give expression to universal beliefs, but only if the particular culture of the time takes ownership of such universal beliefs.

Over a number of weeks, we will focus on how sacred art has been an expression of particular ecclesial (church) communities within the larger Catholic Church throughout history. It is my purpose to share with you our church's belief that the way in which a house of worship is built reflects the ecclesiology of a community and, in turn, reinforces and deepens that very ecclesiology.

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Early Church: Catacombs and House-Churches

It has been argued that, just as the early Christians focused on the Church as "Body-of-Christ" and not as a temple or cathedral, so too Christianity should focus on the community and not on a building. This view has some truth and much evidence in the New Testament supports it. Still, it is clear that early Christian communities did gather in buildings. Kevin Seasoltz provides some evidence of this:

Mention is made of the house at Jerusalem belonging to Mary, the mother of Mark, of the house of Tyrannus at Ephesus, of the house of Philemon at Colossae, and of that of Aquila and Prisca on the Aventine in Rome. There is also archaeological evidence that the early Christians gathered in the house of Senator Pudens in Rome, in the area of the present church of St. Pudentiana. (The House of God: Sacred Art and Church Architecture, 1963, pp 4-5)

It seems clear that during the first two centuries A.D.Christians gathered in homes. However, by the third century houses were being converted into churches. Hans-Josef Klauck writes:

The 1932 excavations at Dura-Europos, a Roman border town on the Euphrates, revealed a private house that had been adapted (about 240 A.D.) as a housechurch by enlarging the living room to accommodate some 60 persons and decorating a small room as a baptistry. It thus shows a transitional stage between the private dwelling which doubled as a Christian meeting-place and the public church building. The house-church or "household constituted church" (Paul's he kat' oikon ekklesia) was already well established in the 1st century. Hans-Josef Klauk, "The House Church as Way of Life," Theology Digest 30 (1982), p. 153

Architectural evidence seems to show that, despite the stress on community rather than buildings, there were house churches for early Christian gatherings. However, these houses were more likely converted into “public-churches” out of necessity and not because of some theological formulation.

Often the early Christians represented their theological formulations in paintings and sculptures. It seems evident that the these images were not forms of idolatry for Christians. In fact, it is very clear that early Christians reacted strongly against worshiping idols, especially those associated with the emperor. At most it can be argued that Christian paintings and sculptures included figures and designs found on idols from other cults. For example, Christ Helios (or Christ as sun-god) is a painting probably representing both the Christ-culture and the cult of Mithros (below). In any case, it seems clear that these symbols were not objects of idolatry.

Christ-Helios c. 300, mosaic, St. Peter's, Rome, necropolis ceiling

Most Christian symbols gave witness to a religion based on Jesus Christ, who was shepherd, the crucified, and Savior. This is made evident by studies on art in the catacombs.

Catacomb of Calixtus

The Christian paintings found in the catacombs are representations from stories in both the Old and New Testaments. In addition, these representations often gave witness to the deceased, who followed Christ. Thus the images were not objects of idolatry, but artistic testimonies of Christian life.

The initial letters for the Greek words for "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior", spell the Greek word for fish. Many early Christians under Roman occupation used such signs to secretly show their faith.

Mention need only be made of the belief that catacombs were common places of Christian celebration during the time While many of the Christian symbols were of persecution. "Hidden" behind Roman art, one cannot conclude that Christians themselves hid from Roman authorities to celebrate liturgies. As was stated earlier, many Christians gathered in house-churches. In addition, Seosoltz writes:

Since the catacombs were public places, well-known to the pagan authorities, they did not serve as hiding places for the Christians nor would they have been safe places for the celebration of the Mass. The narrow passage ways, the humid atmosphere, and the presence of decaying corpses would scarcely have recommended the catacombs as healthful places for an assembly. Whatever services were held there were of an exceptional character, such as the funeral or a memorial chapel. Seosoltz, The House of God, P. 89.

It should be clear that early Christianity was a religious cult among other cults which tried to develop and survive. In order to survive, early church communities gathered to celebrate eucharist, usually in homes or house-churches, which were sometimes adorned with Christian symbols.

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The Byzantine Period

It has often been argued that with Constantine's victory at the Milvian bridge (312) Christianity triumphed over paganism. However, as Justo Gonzalez writes:

Almost to his dying day Constantine continued functioning as the High Priest of paganism. After his death, the three sons who succeeded him did not oppose the Senate's move to have him declared a god. Thus the ironic anomaly occurred that Constantine, who had done so much to the detriment of paganism, became one of the pagan gods. Justo Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity: Volume 1, 1984, p. 123.

However, Constantine had accepted much of the Christian practices and beliefs, including the belief in the name of Christ, found in this sign:

(History tells us that Constantine saw this sign in the sky as he was preparing for battle. He knew that this was a Christian sign meaning, "Christ Conquerer". He placed the sign on his armor and went to battle were he defeated the enemy in 311 AD at the Milvian Bridge. This lead to the edict where Christian were aloud to worship publicly.)

Constantine made various attempts to keep the Church united. Two such attempts consisted in the building of large worship spaces and the calling of a council to settle a religious dispute. Chief among the large worship spaces was the basilica of St. Peter, dedicated in 326, which was built to hold over forty thousand Christians standing in worship. Early Roman basilicas were also adapted to meet the needs of large Christian gatherings.

(Old St. Peter's Basilica)

With the basilicas came the necessity to decorate the worship spaces. Jane Dillenberger writes, "The large Constantinian basilicas had long, well lighted areas above the columns on the side walls, and half-domed areas above the altar for works of art.” Jane Dillenberger, Style and Content in Christian Art, 1988, p. 47. Two techniques used were fresco and mosaic:

(This image is from the Kariye Museum which began as the Church of St. Savior in Chora by Byzantine emperor Justinian)

The council of Nicea, called by Constantine, was intended to settle a dispute within the Christian faith. Called in 325, it had condemned Arius, and stated that the Son was of one substance with the Father. Much of subsequent Christian art would reflect the decisions of the Nicean council. Thus a high Christology (The divinity of Christ was strongly emphasized while His humanity was not) was characteristic of this period; Jesus was portrayed as the Pantokrator, the Almighty and awesome Lord and God.

In the latter part of the Byzantine period, sacred art was put under a test of fire. Christians were divided in their approach to the arts, which were often viewed as inextricably linked with paganism. The heat of the controversy began with the iconoclastic edict of Emperor Leo III (the Isaurian) in 726. Though many Byzantine emperors were iconoclasts, the papacy was clearly not. Difference of opinion contributed to a widening of the estrangement between Rome and Byzantium. The Second Council of Nicea (780-790) put an end to the controversy, in principle, with the condemnation of the iconoclasts. An excerpt from the Council gives an example of a style of art during the late Byzantine period:

We define, with all care and exactitude, that the venerable and holy images are set up in just the same way as the figure of the precious and lifegiving cross; painted images, and those in mosaic and those of other suitable material, in the holy churches of God, on holy vessels and vestments, on walls and on pictures, in houses and by the roadsides; images of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ and of our undefiled Lady, the holy Godbearer, and of the honourable angels, and of all saintly and holy men. Henry Bettenson, ed., Documents of the Christian Church, 1971. p. 94

Henry Chadwick has noted that the controversy continued, until it was finally laid to rest in 843:

On the first Sunday in Lent 843 the empress Theodora restored the icons for the last time with a procession that in the eyes of posterity marked "the triumph of orthodoxy," and made possible the gradual redecoration of the churches under the patriarch Photius from 858 onwards. Chadwick, The Early Church, p. 284.

The Byzantine period was a time of growth and strength for the Christian church. Art and architecture during this period give evidence that the Church was slowly defining ecclesiastical boundaries, as a result of new understandings in Christology, iconology, and other aspects of Christian theology.

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The Romanesque Period

The term "Romanesque" is applied to the art and architecture of the eleventh and twelfth centuries in western Europe, specifically in France. During this period, the tense investiture struggle between the papacy, emperors, and monarchs led to various styles of church architecture, reflecting the different regional churches in Europe. The German style represented the Church as a fortified country, ready to fight. The high towers and broad base of the cathedrals in Germany showed a sturdy and, if need be, threatening Church.

Cologne, Germany

In Italy, few towers were added to very Roman-like buildings. Instead, the style was relatively simple, reflecting a church which had less need to be assertive of its rights.

Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, Italy

While the investiture struggle was a factor in the development of glorious cathedrals, the liturgy itself shaped much of the art and architecture of the times. Seasoltz writes:

About the middle of the eighth century, Pepin decreed the general acceptance of the Roman liturgy throughout his empire. Transported to Franco-German soil, the Roman liturgy acquired a new home which influenced its growth and development for the next few centuries. Seosoltz, The House of God , p. 103.

Though this liturgy was to influence the greater part the Western world for centuries to come, it was continually modified throughout time and in various regions. It is clear that the development in liturgy at this time shaped the style and form of sacred art and architecture of the Romanesque period. For example, the art and architecture of this period began to give expression to a private devotion to the Body of Christ (the thin white host), rather than to a communal celebration of the Body of Christ (Head and members).

Besides the investiture struggle and the changes in liturgy, another factor contributing to the new style of architecture at the time was technical necessity. Earlier architecture had made use of wooden ceilings, which were vulnerable to devastation from fire, rain, and winds. Seasoltz presents a possible reason for the new style of architecturethat now begins to appear:

The barbarian invasions which razed towns and churches induced architects to construct fire-proof churches. Consequently the timber roofs which appeared in the basilicas were replaced by vaulted stone ceilings which were supported by thick walls often reinforced by internal flying buttresses. Ibid , p. 102.

It is clear that the art and architecture of the Romanesque period were shaped by many factors. Church art and architecture gave expression to changes in ecclesiology and liturgy, as well as in new developments in technology at the time.

The Gothic Period

It has been difficult for many art historians to make a clear distinction between the sacred arts of the Romanesque and Gothic periods. When did Romanesque art and architecture end and Gothic begin? While the dates are still debated, it is clear that each period has its own particular style. Two fundamental distinctions between the Romanesque and Gothic periods are presented here.

The first distinction is based on the different Christological understandings of the two periods. The Romanesque period, for the most part, continued to express the high Christology of the earlier Byzantine period, where Christ was seen as the Pantokrator. Dillenberger notes a subtle shift in the Gothic period:

The subject matter of Romanesque sculpture was mystical and ecstatic whereas the Gothic sculptor created scenes which showed the earthly events of Jesus' life, dwelling especially upon the events in which Mary the Mother of Jesus participated. Mary's life prior to the Annunciation was also depicted, and all the infancy scenes were frequently represented. Dillenberger, Style and Content in Christian Art, p. 65.

Dillenberger suggests that the shift in subject matter came from the fact that the Romanesque arts were, in part, shaped by mystical scenes appropriate to monasteries, whereas Gothic cathedrals, unlike monasteries, were built within the towns and cities.

These cathedrals visually and spiritually dominated the towns and cities serving the surrounding populace. The events from the life of Jesus and of Mary and the stories of the Old and New Testament were closer to the lives of the farmers and millers who lived near Chartres or the townspeople of Rheims and Amiens than were the mystical scenes of the monastic churches. Ibid

Madonna and Child, Orleans Cathedral

The Gothic representation of Christ is very human and far more playful than the triumphant Christ of the Romanesque period. The Madonna and Child of Orleans, for example, shows the Christ Child gently touching the chin of Mary. This particular piece of sculpture, along with other sculptures of the time, show a shift from the static style of Pantokrator or Theotokos. This is not to say that the Gothic period accepted a low Christology. On the contrary, evidence shows that this period also worshiped a Triumphant Christ, though the shift from triumphalism to humanism had begun.

Last Judgement, The Royal Portals of Chartres

Another distinction between the Romanesque and Gothic periods concerns the location and size of the worship spaces. As was mentioned earlier, the Romanesque monasteries were located in rural areas, to which people could retreat. The style of liturgy and sacred art encouraged this focus on a personal, devotional retreat to God. Because of the grandeur of the cathedrals, however, which towered over towns and villages, people had no reason to retreat privately to find God. If there was a sense of retreat, it was not to the monasteries but to the heavens, aided by the tall spires and flying buttresses.

The Gothic structures allowed for a greater number of worshipers. Jean Gimple, in his book, The Cathedral Builders, gives a clear focus on the size of one cathedral:

The area of Amiens Cathedral, covering about 208,000 square feet, permitted the entire population of nearly ten thousand people to attend the same service. For comparison, imagine in a modern city of one million people a stadium built in the middle of town large enough to accommodate the whole population, remembering that the largest stadium in the world seats only 180,000. Jean Gimple, The Cathedral Builders (New York: Grove, 1961), p. 5.

Amiens Cathedral

One would suspect that the size of the cathedral would encourage communal worship. Instead, private devotion was increased, as multiple altars were placed around the massive structure.

The old principle that there be but one altar in a church was forgotten during the Middle ages. Additional altars were constructed to accommodate the priests who offered Mass privately; they were also built in honor of relics, which were often one of the most cherished possessions of the medieval churches. Seosoltz, The House of God, p. 109.

Chartres, Floor Plan

Thus because of the size and location of the cathedrals, the possibility for private devotion was enhanced.

In the end, it can be said that certain aspects of the ecclesiology of the Gothic period found expression in the very structure of church buildings. The cathedrals in the Gothic age represent a "House of God," rather than the Early Christians' domus ecclesiae.

The Renaissance Period

The Renaissance period can be dated from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. This period, roughly speaking, begins with the humiliation of Pope Boniface VIII by Philip the Fair (1303) and ends with the “religious toleration” at the Edict of Nantes (1598). It can be seen that this period was the beginning and the end of a struggle to keep the Church united. The Great Schism (1378-1418) and the Protestant Reformation (1500s) were but two of the major threats to this unity which the Catholic Church had to face in this long period.

Furthermore, "expansion" was the key to a renewal of Christianity in the latter part of this period. With Gutenberg's movable type and Columbus' discovery of America, people began to broaden their minds. The elite and non-elite were "allowed" to be literate. The majority of the laity were no longer limited, in their learning of the faith, to the contemplation of cathedral windows, paintings, and sculptures. Instead, the truths could now be found in direct contact with scripture.

The various sculptors, painters, and architects of this period give evidence of this new and vital phase of the Renaissance. Michelangelo's reconstruction of St. Peter's, his vast paintings, and splendid sculptures, are an expression of this expansion.

St. Peter's Basilica, Rome

Dürer, Raphael, and El Greco are also counted among the many artists of the time who expanded the minds of both literate and illiterate alike. Mention should be made too of Leonardo Da Vinci. Of him Gonzalez writes:

There were few human activities that this genius of the Renaissance did not try to master. Although now known mostly as a painter, Leonardo also did significant work and research in engineering, jewelry, ballistics, and anatomy. His goal, which was the ideal of his time, was to be the "universal man." His grand projects of channeling rivers, constructing new weapons, and building submarines and flying machines, never materialized. Many of his paintings remained unfinished, or did not go beyond the stage of preliminary sketches, which are now valued as great artistic treasures. But in spite of the fragmentary and unfinished nature of his work he became the embodiment and symbol of the "universal man" that was the goal of the Renaissance.

Da Vinci's, Last Supper

The artistic representations of a human Jesus, seen in the Gothic age, became even more prevalent in the Renaissance period. Jesus was with his people, who suffered from the wars, the inquisitions, the Black Plague, disunity among churches and other evils of the period. More and more Jesus is portrayed as the great sufferer on the cross, or as one being literally crushed to death on a wine press, where His blood is poured out as drink for those who thirst for comfort.

Jesus on Wine Press

Jesus was also portrayed in relation to Mary, the representative of the Church, in order to show that he is with his people. On the one hand, there are examples similar to Michelangelo's Pieta, where the crucified Jesus is held in his Mother's arms.

Michelangelo's, Pieta, St. Peter's, Rome

On the other hand, Mary is holding the Child Jesus, although he is not as playful as the child portrayed in the Gothic period. The Madonna and Child in the Renaissance period are often very serious, as if they are somehow aware of the fate that awaits them.

It would be impossible to show fully how the Renaissance period expresses itself in art. However, some of the factors which helped to develop the sacred art and architecture of the time have been stated above.

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The Baroque Period through Gothic Revival

Much of what was settled at the Council of Trent (1545-1563) continued to be the practice of the Church until the latter part of the twentieth century. It was important for the Roman Catholic Church to "keep a lid" on the faith, so that no more changes could be made. While the rules of Trent remained virtually unchanged, ecclesiastical art and architecture continued to be reformed. A variety of architectural styles were developed between the Baroque period (seventeenth century) and the Gothic revival (nineteenth century).

Portrait of Christ, c. 1655-57, Rembrant

The term "Baroque" is often equated with the Catholic art and architecture of the seventeenth century. David Pipersuggests that this style of art was "a dynamic response to the call of the Counter-Reformation churchmen to portray religious scenes with solid realism and emotional directness.” Though Caravaggio and Carracci were the leaders of this movement, Bernini's works are some of the best examples of theBaroque period.

Ecstasy of St. Theresa of Avila, Bernini

This style of art is marked by massive forms and elaborate decoration. It was meant to lift the worshiping individual to spiritual heights, while the "liturgy" was celebrated by the priest.

Neoclassicism, the European art style of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, was a reaction against the elegant and playful style of the Baroque.

Church of Santa Sussana, Rome

Whereas the Baroque had been the style of Absolutism, Neoclassicism was an expression of the Enlightenment and the Age of Reason, and classical forms were seen as embodying a reason and order corresponding to the prevailing philosophical and social outlook.

Artists strove for archaeologically correct details in their paintings, sculpture and architecture, stimulated by the recent discoveries of Herculaneum and Pompeii.

Interior of St. John Lateran, Pope's Cathedral, Rome

The Gothic revival, begun in the early nineteenth century, was an attempt to create church buildings that followed the Gothic style. Established in continental Europe, Gothic revival is often referred to as the architectural style of early America.

San Gaudenzio, Novaro, Italy

One of the leading figures of this movement was Augustus Welby Pugin, whose writings influenced much of the ecclesiastical architecture in both Protestant and Catholic camps in Europe and America. Joseph Rykwert writes:

Pugin urged a return to the Catholic faith and Gothic architecture; in principle, the Gothic architecture of the late fifteenth century, which he thought to have been the last valid expression of Catholic society before the reformation.

Because of the unchanging teachings of Trent, especially in the area of liturgy, a creative approach to new art and architecture was limited. While the outer shell of a church went through different styles, from the Baroque period to the Gothic revival, the interior arrangement remained the same. The altar faced the wall, the sanctuary separated the priests from the assembly, and the shape of the nave was rectangular. It was not until the twentieth century that church art and architecture were significantly changed to meet the needs of a new liturgical movement.

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